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<title>Serial communication</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Serial communication</span></span>

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<p>In <a href="Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> and <a href="Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">data transmission</a>, <b>serial communication</b> is the process of sending <a href="Data" title="Data">data</a> one <a href="Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> at a time, sequentially, over a <a href="Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication channel</a> or <a href="Computer_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer bus">computer bus</a>. This is in contrast to <a href="Parallel_communication" title="Parallel communication">parallel communication</a>, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with several parallel channels.

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<p>Serial communication is used for all <a href="Long-haul_communications" title="Long-haul communications">long-haul communication</a> and most <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a>, where the cost of <a href="Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">cable</a> and difficulty of <a href="Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> make parallel communication impractical. Serial computer buses have become more common even at shorter distances, as improved <a href="Signal_integrity" title="Signal integrity">signal integrity</a> and transmission speeds in newer serial technologies have begun to outweigh the parallel bus's advantage of simplicity (no need for serializer and deserializer, or <a href="SerDes" title="SerDes">SerDes</a>) and to outstrip its disadvantages (<a href="Clock_skew" title="Clock skew">clock skew</a>, interconnect density). The migration from <a href="Peripheral_Component_Interconnect" title="Peripheral Component Interconnect">PCI</a> to <a href="PCI_Express" title="PCI Express">PCI Express</a> (PCIe) is an example.

</p><p>Modern high speed serial interfaces such as PCIe<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> send data several bits at a time using modulation/encoding techniques such as <a href="PAM4" class="mw-redirect" title="PAM4">PAM4</a> which groups 2 bits at a time into a single symbol, and several symbols are still sent one at a time. This replaces PAM2 or non return to zero (NRZ) which only sends one bit at a time, or in other words one bit per symbol.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbols are sent at a speed known as the symbol rate or the baud rate.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cables">Cables</h2></div>

<p>Many serial communication systems were originally designed to transfer data over relatively large distances through some sort of <a href="Data_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Data cable">data cable</a>.

</p><p>Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than "the" serial cable) and the <a href="Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">computer ports</a> they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.

</p><p>Keyboard and mouse cables and ports are almost invariably serial—such as <a href="PS/2_port" title="PS/2 port">PS/2 port</a>, <a href="Apple_Desktop_Bus" title="Apple Desktop Bus">Apple Desktop Bus</a> and <a href="USB" title="USB">USB</a>.

</p><p>The cables that carry digital video are also mostly serial—such as <a href="Coax_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Coax cable">coax cable</a> plugged into a <a href="HD-SDI" class="mw-redirect" title="HD-SDI">HD-SDI</a> port, a <a href="Webcam" title="Webcam">webcam</a> plugged into a USB port or <a href="IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire port</a>, <a href="Ethernet_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethernet cable">Ethernet cable</a> connecting an <a href="IP_camera" title="IP camera">IP camera</a> to a <a href="Power_over_Ethernet" title="Power over Ethernet">Power over Ethernet</a> port, <a href="FPD-Link" title="FPD-Link">FPD-Link</a>, digital telephone lines (ex. <a href="ISDN" title="ISDN">ISDN</a>), etc.

</p><p>Other such cables and ports, transmitting data one bit at a time, include <a href="Serial_ATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">Serial ATA</a>, <a href="SCSI_connector#Serial_SCSI" title="SCSI connector">Serial SCSI</a>, Ethernet cable plugged into <a href="Ethernet_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethernet port">Ethernet ports</a>, the <a href="Display_Data_Channel" title="Display Data Channel">Display Data Channel</a> using previously reserved pins of the <a href="VGA_connector" title="VGA connector">VGA connector</a> or the <a href="DVI_port" class="mw-redirect" title="DVI port">DVI port</a> or the <a href="HDMI" title="HDMI">HDMI</a> port.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Serial_buses">Serial buses</h2></div>

<p>Many communication systems were generally designed to connect two integrated circuits on the same <a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a>, connected by <a href="Signal_trace" title="Signal trace">signal traces</a> on that board (rather than external cables).

</p><p><a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuits</a> are more expensive when they have more pins. To reduce the number of pins in a package, many ICs use a serial bus to transfer data when speed is not important. Some examples of such low-cost lower-speed serial buses include <a href="RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a>, <a href="Digital_Addressable_Lighting_Interface" title="Digital Addressable Lighting Interface">DALI</a>, <a href="Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial Peripheral Interface Bus">SPI</a>, <a href="CAN_bus" title="CAN bus">CAN bus</a>, <a href="I%C2%B2C" title="I²C">I²C</a>, <a href="UNI/O" title="UNI/O">UNI/O</a>, and <a href="1-Wire" title="1-Wire">1-Wire</a>. Higher-speed serial buses include <a href="USB" title="USB">USB</a>, <a href="SATA" title="SATA">SATA</a> and <a href="PCI_Express" title="PCI Express">PCI Express</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Serial_versus_parallel">Serial versus parallel</h2></div>

<p>The communication links, across which computers (or parts of computers) talk to one another, may be either serial or parallel. A parallel link transmits several streams of data simultaneously along multiple channels (e.g., wires, printed circuit tracks, or optical fibers); whereas, a serial link transmits only a single stream of data. The rationale for parallel communication was the added benefit of having <a href="Direct_Memory_Access" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Memory Access">Direct Memory Access</a> to the 8-bit or 16-bit registry addresses at a time where mapping direct data lanes was more convenient and faster than synchronizing data serially.

</p><p>Although a serial link may seem inferior to a parallel one, since it can transmit less data per clock cycle, it is often the case that serial links can be clocked considerably faster than parallel links in order to achieve a higher data rate. Several factors allow serial to be clocked at a higher rate:

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<ul><li><a href="Clock_skew" title="Clock skew">Clock skew</a> between different channels is not an issue (for unclocked <a href="Asynchronous_serial_communication" title="Asynchronous serial communication">asynchronous serial communication</a> links). This can be caused by mismatched wire or conductor lengths.<sup id="cite_ref-cse378-lecture-24_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cse378-lecture-24-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>A serial connection requires fewer interconnecting cables (e.g., wires/fibers) and hence occupies less space. The extra space allows for better isolation of the channel from its surroundings.</li>

<li><a href="Crosstalk" title="Crosstalk">Crosstalk</a> is less of an issue, because there are fewer conductors in proximity.<sup id="cite_ref-cse378-lecture-24_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cse378-lecture-24-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Budgets for power use, power dissipation, cable cost, component cost, IC die area, PC board area, ESD protection, etc. can be focused on a single link.</li></ul>

<p>The transition from parallel to serial buses was allowed by <a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a> which allowed for the incorporation of SerDes in integrated circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

An electrical serial link only requires a pair of wires, whereas a parallel link requires several. Thus serial links can save on costs (also known as the <a href="Bill_of_Materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Materials">Bill of Materials</a>). <a href="Differential_signalling" title="Differential signalling">Differential signalling</a> uses length-matched wires or conductors and are used in high speed serial links.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Length-matching is easier to perform on serial links as they require fewer conductors.

</p><p>In many cases, serial is cheaper to implement than parallel. Many <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">ICs</a> have serial interfaces, as opposed to parallel ones, so that they have fewer pins and are therefore less expensive.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_architectures">Examples of architectures</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a href="ARINC_818" title="ARINC 818">ARINC 818</a> Avionics Digital Video Bus</li>

<li><a href="Atari_SIO" title="Atari SIO">Atari SIO</a> (Joe Decuir credits his work on Atari SIO as the basis of USB)</li>

<li><a href="Binary_Synchronous_Communications" title="Binary Synchronous Communications">Binary Synchronous Communications</a> BSC - Binary Synchronous Communications</li>

<li><a href="CAN_bus" title="CAN bus">CAN</a> Control Area Network Vehicle Bus</li>

<li><a href="CcTalk" title="CcTalk">ccTalk</a> Used in the money transaction and point-of-sale industry</li>

<li><a href="CoaXPress" title="CoaXPress">CoaXPress</a> industrial camera protocol over Coax</li>

<li><a href="DMX512" title="DMX512">DMX512</a> control of theatrical lighting</li>

<li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiber_Distributed_Data_Interface" title="Fiber Distributed Data Interface">Fiber Distributed Data Interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibre_Channel" title="Fibre Channel">Fibre Channel</a> (high-speed, for connecting computers to mass storage devices)</li>

<li><a href="FireWire" class="mw-redirect" title="FireWire">FireWire</a></li>

<li><a href="HyperTransport" title="HyperTransport">HyperTransport</a></li>

<li><a href="InfiniBand" title="InfiniBand">InfiniBand</a> (very high speed, broadly comparable in scope to <a href="Peripheral_Component_Interconnect" title="Peripheral Component Interconnect">PCI</a>)</li>

<li><a href="I%C2%B2C" title="I²C">I²C</a> multidrop serial bus</li>

<li><a href="MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> control of electronic musical instruments</li>

<li><a href="Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> <a href="Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="PCI_Express" title="PCI Express">PCI Express</a></li>

<li><a href="Profibus" title="Profibus">Profibus</a></li>

<li><a href="RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a> (low-speed, implemented by <a href="Serial_port" title="Serial port">serial ports</a>)</li>

<li><a href="RS-422" title="RS-422">RS-422</a> multidrop serial bus</li>

<li><a href="RS-485" title="RS-485">RS-485</a> multidrop multimaster serial bus</li>

<li><a href="SDI-12" title="SDI-12">SDI-12</a> industrial sensor protocol</li>

<li><a href="SERCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="SERCOM">SERCOM</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_ATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">Serial ATA</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_Attached_SCSI" title="Serial Attached SCSI">Serial Attached SCSI</a></li>

<li><a href="Shift_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Shift Register">Shift Register</a> with serial-in and serial-out configuration</li>

<li><a href="SONET" class="mw-redirect" title="SONET">SONET</a> and <a href="Synchronous_Optical_Networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronous Optical Networking">SDH</a> (high speed telecommunication over optical fibers)</li>

<li><a href="SpaceWire" title="SpaceWire">SpaceWire</a> Spacecraft communication network</li>

<li><a href="S/PDIF" title="S/PDIF">S/PDIF</a> and <a href="AES3" title="AES3">AES3</a> audio communication protocols</li>

<li><a href="T-carrier" title="T-carrier">T-1</a>, <a href="E-carrier" title="E-carrier">E-1</a> and variants (high speed telecommunication over copper pairs)</li>

<li><a href="Universal_Serial_Bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Serial Bus">Universal Serial Bus</a> (for connecting peripherals to computers)</li>

<li><a href="UNI/O" title="UNI/O">UNI/O</a> multidrop serial bus</li>

<li><a href="1-Wire" title="1-Wire">1-Wire</a> multidrop serial bus</li></ul>

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<li><a href="Asynchronous_serial_communication" title="Asynchronous serial communication">Asynchronous serial communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_synchronous_and_asynchronous_signalling" title="Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling">Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer bus">Computer bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">Data transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_pattern" title="Eye pattern">Eye pattern</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_Standard_1037C" title="Federal Standard 1037C">Federal Standard 1037C</a></li>

<li><a href="High-Level_Data_Link_Control" title="High-Level Data Link Control">High-Level Data Link Control</a> (HDLC)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_device_bandwidths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of device bandwidths">List of device bandwidths</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial Peripheral Interface Bus">Serial Peripheral Interface Bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_port" title="Serial port">Serial port</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_serial_communication" title="Synchronous serial communication">Synchronous serial communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_asynchronous_receiver/transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter">Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter</a> (UART)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMackenzie1980" class="citation book cs1">Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf"><i>Coded Character Sets, History and Development</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). <a href="Addison-Wesley_Publishing_Company%2C_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.">Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.</a> pp. <span class="nowrap">247–</span>253. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-201-14460-4</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/77-90165">77-90165</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160526172151/https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on May 26, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2022" class="citation web cs1">Robinson, Dan (12 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.com/2022/01/12/final_pcie_60_specs_released/">"Final PCIe 6.0 specs unleashed: 64 GTps link speed incoming... with products to follow in 2023"</a>. <i><a href="The_Register" title="The Register">The Register</a></i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240404125350/https://www.anandtech.com/show/21335/full-draft-of-pcie-70-spec-available-512-gbs-over-pcie-x16-incoming">"PCIe 7.0 Draft 0.5 Spec Available: 512 GB/S over PCIe x16 on Track for 2025"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anandtech.com/show/21335/full-draft-of-pcie-70-spec-available-512-gbs-over-pcie-x16-incoming">the original</a> on April 4, 2024.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/01/pci-express-6-0-spec-is-finalized-doubling-bandwidth-for-ssds-gpus-and-more/">"PCIe 5.0 is just beginning to come to new PCS, but version 6.0 is already here"</a>. 12 January 2022.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnGDBAAAQBAJ&dq=serial+pam4+signals&pg=PA9"><i>Handbook of Serial Communications Interfaces: A Comprehensive Compendium of Serial Digital Input/Output (I/O) Standards</i></a>. Newnes. 21 August 2015. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-800671-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.signalintegrityjournal.com/articles/1151-pam4-for-better-and-worse">"PAM4: For Better and Worse | 2019-02-26 | Signal Integrity Journal"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semiengineering.com/knowledge_centers/communications-io/off-chip-communications/pam-4-signaling/">"PAM-4 Signaling"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhangJiaoLiaoZhang" class="citation conference cs1">Zhang, Hongtao; Jiao, Brandon; Liao, Yu; Zhang, Geoff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.xilinx.com/publications/events/designcon/2016/slides-pam4signalingfor56gserial-zhang-designcon.pdf"><i>PAM4 Signaling for 56G Serial Link Applications − A Tutorial</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. DesignCon 2016.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://download.tek.com/document/PAM4-Signaling-in-High-Speed-Serial-Technology_55W-60273.pdf">"PAM4 Signaling in High-Speed Serial Technology: Test, Analysis, and Debug"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (application note). <a href="Tektronix" title="Tektronix">Tektronix</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPanYue2019" class="citation book cs1">Pan, Zhongqi; Yue, Yang (3 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JljBDwAAQBAJ&dq=pam4+symbol&pg=PA54"><i>Advanced DSP Techniques for High-Capacity and Energy-Efficient Optical Fiber Communications</i></a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-03921-792-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MlruDwAAQBAJ&dq=pam4+symbol&pg=PA944"><i>Essentials of Modern Communications</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. 4 August 2020. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-119-52149-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKim2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Gain (January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Eye-diagrams-of-PAM-2-4-8-with-normalized-vertical-full-swing-level-Peak-to-peak-swings_fig2_361960252">"Design Space Exploration of Single-Lane OFDM-Based Serial Links for High-Speed Wireline Communications"</a>. <i>IEEE Open Journal of Circuits and Systems</i>. <b>3</b> (1). Figure 2. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FOJCAS.2022.3189550">10.1109/OJCAS.2022.3189550</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2644-1225">2644-1225</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edn.com/eye-diagrams-the-tool-for-serial-data-analysis/">"Eye diagrams: The tool for serial data analysis"</a>. 4 June 2019.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/Advantages-and-disadvantages-of-PAM4-modulation.html">"Advantages of PAM4 modulation | Disadvantages PAM4 signaling"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edn.com/generate-pam4-signals-for-receiver-compliance-testing/">"Generate PAM4 signals for receiver compliance testing"</a>. 20 September 2016.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L1YIEQAAQBAJ&dq=pam4+symbol+rate&pg=PA16"><i>Complex Digital Hardware Design</i></a>. CRC Press. 9 May 2024. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-040-01179-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cse378-lecture-24-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cse378-lecture-24_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cse378-lecture-24_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse378/11wi/lectures/lec24.pdf">"Lecture 24"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>CSE378: Machine Organization & Assembly Language</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLedinFarley2022" class="citation book cs1">Ledin, Jim; Farley, Dave (4 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BxptEAAAQBAJ"><i>Modern Computer Architecture and Organization: Learn x86, ARM, and RISC-V architectures and the design of smartphones, PCS, and cloud servers</i></a>. Packt Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-80323-823-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aUCgNOpyUbgC&dq=parallel++serial++serdes+moore%27s+law&pg=PA275"><i>The Boundary — Scan Handbook</i></a>. Springer. 30 June 2003. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4020-7496-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLedinFarley2022" class="citation book cs1">Ledin, Jim; Farley, Dave (4 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BxptEAAAQBAJ"><i>Modern Computer Architecture and Organization: Learn x86, ARM, and RISC-V architectures and the design of smartphones, PCS, and cloud servers</i></a>. Packt Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-80323-823-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.societyofrobots.com/microcontroller_uart.shtml">Serial Interface Tutorial for Robotics</a> (contains many practical examples)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pinouts.ru/pin_SerialPorts.shtml">Serial interfaces listing (with pinouts)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?SerialPorts">Wiki: Serial Ports</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226195855/http://www.thaiio.com/prog-cgi/VBnetSerialPort.htm">Visual studio 2008 coding for Serial communication</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.byteparadigm.com/kb/article/AA-00255">Introduction to I²C and SPI protocols</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308185505/http://byteparadigm.com/kb/article/aa-00255">Archived</a> 2016-03-08 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/serial-communication/all">Serial communication introduction</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://training-kits.appspot.com/serial-linux.html">Serial Port Programming in Linux</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180702014758/http://training-kits.appspot.com/serial-linux.html">Archived</a> 2018-07-02 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Technical_and_de_facto_standards_for_wired_computer_buses462" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">Technical</a> and <a href="De_facto_standard" title="De facto standard"><i>de facto</i> standards</a> for <a href="Wired_communication" title="Wired communication">wired</a> <a href="Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">computer buses</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="System_bus" title="System bus">System bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Front-side_bus" title="Front-side bus">Front-side bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Daisy_chain_(electrical_engineering)" title="Daisy chain (electrical engineering)">Daisy chain</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_bus" title="Control bus">Control bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Address_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Address bus">Address bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Bus_contention" title="Bus contention">Bus contention</a></li>

<li><a href="Bus_mastering" title="Bus mastering">Bus mastering</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_on_a_chip" title="Network on a chip">Network on a chip</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_interface_bit_rates#Computer_buses" title="List of interface bit rates">List of bus bandwidths</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Multibus" title="Multibus">Multibus</a></li>

<li><a href="Unibus" title="Unibus">Unibus</a></li>

<li><a href="VAXBI_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="VAXBI bus">VAXBI</a></li>

<li><a href="System_Management_Bus" title="System Management Bus">SMBus</a></li>

<li><a href="Europe_Card_Bus" title="Europe Card Bus">Europe Card Bus</a></li>

<li><a href="STEbus" title="STEbus">STEbus</a></li>

<li><a href="Zorro_II" title="Zorro II">Zorro II</a></li>

<li><a href="Zorro_III" title="Zorro III">Zorro III</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_Automated_Measurement_and_Control" title="Computer Automated Measurement and Control">CAMAC</a></li>

<li><a href="FASTBUS" title="FASTBUS">FASTBUS</a></li>

<li><a href="HP_Precision_Bus" title="HP Precision Bus">HP Precision Bus</a></li>

<li><a href="NuBus" title="NuBus">NuBus</a></li>

<li><a href="TURBOchannel" title="TURBOchannel">TURBOchannel</a></li>

<li><a href="InfiniBand" title="InfiniBand">InfiniBand</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>

<li><a href="PCI-X" title="PCI-X">PCI Extended (PCI-X)</a></li>

<li><a href="PCI_Express" title="PCI Express">PCI Express (PCIe)</a></li>

<li><a href="Compute_Express_Link" title="Compute Express Link">Compute Express Link (CXL)</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_Media_Interface" title="Direct Media Interface">Direct Media Interface (DMI)</a></li>

<li><a href="RapidIO" title="RapidIO">RapidIO</a></li>

<li><a href="Intel_QuickPath_Interconnect" title="Intel QuickPath Interconnect">Intel QuickPath Interconnect</a></li>

<li><a href="NVLink" title="NVLink">NVLink</a></li>

<li><a href="HyperTransport" title="HyperTransport">HyperTransport</a>

<ul><li><a href="Infinity_Fabric" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinity Fabric">Infinity Fabric</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Intel_Ultra_Path_Interconnect" title="Intel Ultra Path Interconnect">Intel Ultra Path Interconnect</a></li>

<li><a href="Coherent_Accelerator_Processor_Interface" title="Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface">Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI)</a></li>

<li><a href="SpaceWire" title="SpaceWire">SpaceWire</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Floppy_disk_drive_interface" title="Floppy disk drive interface">Floppy connector</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_ATA" title="Parallel ATA">Parallel ATA (PATA)</a></li>

<li><a href="HIPPI" title="HIPPI">HIPPI</a></li>

<li><a href="SATA" title="SATA">Serial ATA (SATA)</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Parallel_SCSI" title="Parallel SCSI">Parallel</a></li>

<li><a href="ESCON" title="ESCON">ESCON</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibre_Channel" title="Fibre Channel">Fibre Channel</a></li>

<li><a href="SATA_Express" title="SATA Express">SATAe</a></li>

<li>PCI Express (via <a href="Advanced_Host_Controller_Interface" title="Advanced Host Controller Interface">AHCI</a> or <a href="NVM_Express" title="NVM Express">NVMe</a> logical device interface)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peripheral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apple_Desktop_Bus" title="Apple Desktop Bus">Apple Desktop Bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Atari_SIO" title="Atari SIO">Atari SIO</a></li>

<li><a href="Commodore_bus" title="Commodore bus">Commodore bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Lightning_(connector)" title="Lightning (connector)">Lightning</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_1284" title="IEEE 1284">IEEE-1284 (parallel port)</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">IEEE-1394 (FireWire)</a></li>

<li><a href="I%C2%B2C" title="I²C">I²C</a> (<a href="ACCESS.bus" title="ACCESS.bus">ACCESS.bus</a>, <a href="Power_Management_Bus" title="Power Management Bus">PMBus</a>, <a href="System_Management_Bus" title="System Management Bus">SMBus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Parallel_SCSI" title="Parallel SCSI">Parallel SCSI</a></li>

<li><a href="Profibus" title="Profibus">Profibus</a></li>

<li><a href="Camera_Link" title="Camera Link">Camera Link</a></li>

<li><a href="PCI_Express#PCI_Express_External_Cabling" title="PCI Express">External PCIe</a></li>

<li><a href="Thunderbolt_(interface)" title="Thunderbolt (interface)">Thunderbolt</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Audio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ADAT_Lightpipe" title="ADAT Lightpipe">ADAT Lightpipe</a></li>

<li><a href="Intel_High_Definition_Audio" title="Intel High Definition Audio">Intel HD Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="McASP" title="McASP">McASP</a></li>

<li><a href="TOSLINK" title="TOSLINK">TOSLINK</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ExpressCard" title="ExpressCard">ExpressCard</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Embedded</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multidrop_bus" title="Multidrop bus">Multidrop bus</a></li>

<li><a href="CoreConnect" title="CoreConnect">CoreConnect</a></li>

<li><a href="Wishbone_(computer_bus)" title="Wishbone (computer bus)">Wishbone</a></li>

<li><a href="SLIMbus" title="SLIMbus">SLIMbus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest.<br><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="skin-invert-image"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Line_coding_(digital_baseband_transmission)443" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Line_coding_(digital_baseband_transmission)443" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Line_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Line coding">Line coding</a> (digital baseband transmission)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Unipolar_encoding" title="Unipolar encoding">Unipolar encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Bipolar_encoding" title="Bipolar encoding">Bipolar encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="On%E2%80%93off_keying" title="On–off keying">On–off keying</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_and_space" title="Mark and space">Mark and space</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic <a href="Line_code" title="Line code">line codes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Return-to-zero" title="Return-to-zero">Return to zero (RZ)</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-return-to-zero#Non-return-to-zero_level" title="Non-return-to-zero">Non-return-to-zero, level (NRZ/NRZ-L)</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-return-to-zero#Non-return-to-zero_inverted" title="Non-return-to-zero">Non-return-to-zero, inverted (NRZ-I)</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-return-to-zero#Non-return-to-zero_space" title="Non-return-to-zero">Non-return-to-zero, space (NRZ-S)</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchester_code" title="Manchester code">Manchester</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_Manchester_encoding" title="Differential Manchester encoding">Differential Manchester/biphase (Bi-φ)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extended line codes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conditioned_diphase" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditioned diphase">Conditioned diphase</a></li>

<li><a href="Bipolar_encoding#Alternate_mark_inversion" title="Bipolar encoding">Alternate mark inversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Modified_AMI_code" title="Modified AMI code">Modified AMI code</a></li>

<li><a href="Coded_mark_inversion" title="Coded mark inversion">Coded mark inversion</a></li>

<li><a href="MLT-3_encoding" title="MLT-3 encoding">MLT-3 encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybrid_ternary_code" title="Hybrid ternary code">Hybrid ternary code</a></li>

<li><a href="6b/8b_encoding" title="6b/8b encoding">6b/8b encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="8b/10b_encoding" title="8b/10b encoding">8b/10b encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="64b/66b_encoding" title="64b/66b encoding">64b/66b encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Eight-to-fourteen_modulation" title="Eight-to-fourteen modulation">Eight-to-fourteen modulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Delay_encoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Delay encoding">Delay/Miller encoding</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Optical line codes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carrier-suppressed_return-to-zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrier-suppressed return-to-zero">Carrier-suppressed return-to-zero</a></li>

<li><a href="Alternate-phase_return-to-zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternate-phase return-to-zero">Alternate-phase return-to-zero</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><i>See also:</i> <a href="Baseband" title="Baseband">Baseband</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">Digital signal</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital transmission">Digital transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethernet_physical_layer" title="Ethernet physical layer">Ethernet physical layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulation">Pulse modulation methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulse-amplitude_modulation" title="Pulse-amplitude modulation">Pulse-amplitude modulation</a> (PAM)</li>

<li><a href="Pulse-code_modulation" title="Pulse-code modulation">Pulse-code modulation</a> (PCM)</li>

<li>Category:Line codes</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-06" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Serial_communication&oldid=1304464462">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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